ISLAMIC SCIENCE

· Most relevant to European science.

· Greek – Arabic – Latin – Hebrew

· The Arabic culture and language spread afar: to Portugal in the west and to the frontiers of China in the east and over many degrees of latitude.

Arabic scientific development:

Alchemy

• Medieval chemical art whose principal objectives were to find the PANACEA (cure for all illness) and to transmute base metals into gold.

Rhazes – makes the earliest known suggestions for furnishing a chemical laboratory.

Math

• Arabic Numerals – an Indian system of numerical rotation during 9^th century. It was invented in India passed through Persia to the Arabs, and was introduced to the Europe in the 10^th century
• Persian Mohammed Ibn Musa Al Khwarizmi – the Persian Mohammed where algorism, which is a medieval word for arithmetic came from. He also developed the process of retrification (transposition of a negative term of the equation into the positive side)

Toledan – the tables of proposition of stars which were drawn up in 1080.

Medicine

• Rhazes – made the first distinction between measles and small fox.
• Avicenna – Persian philosopher and physician. He is called the “Prince of Physicians”.

The great Arabic contributions to medicine are the introduction of new vegetables drugs (herbal medicine).

INDIAN SCIENCE

Ø Indian civilization is about the oldest still alive and achieves a high level of technology at an early stage.

The science in India has something to do with the following field:

• Agriculture – irrigation was developed at an early stage.
• Indian Astrology – Indian Astronomical text named Vendanga Jyotista dates back around 1200 BC. Detailed several Astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events with regards to marriage, career and election process.
• Zinc Metallurgy (refining metals) – zinc mines of Zawar were active during 400 B.C. Another important Indian contribution was in the isolation, distillation and use of zinc. Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BC. Rust free steel was an Indian invention and remained an Indian skill for centuries.
• Mathematics – the use of negative numbers was known in early India and their role in situation like mathematical problem of debt was understood. Decimal numbers was also known in early India.

List of Indian Invention and Discoveries

1. Atomism – the earliest reference to the concept of atoms date back to India in the 6^th century BC.

Ø According to Democritus – the terms “atomos” means uncuttable or smallest indivisible particle of matter.

Ø Dharmakirti and Dignaga – Indian philosopher and founder of Vaisheshika School of Atomism. They considered atom to be: point-sized, durationless, and made of energy.

2. Chandrasekhar limit and Chandrasekhar numbers – discovered by Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (novel price in physics for his work in the stellar structure and stellar evolution).
3. Universe – the earliest known philosophical models of the universe are found in Vedas dating back to the late 2^nd millennium BC.
4. Indigo – used as dye, a major center for its production and processing.
5. Firearms – in the 16^th century, they start to manufacture fire arms specially, large guns.