The Reasons Why science Broaden During the Renaissance Period

• It is the continuation of the Middle Age
• The recovery of the text of the Greek classics, most of which had been known only through the latin translation of Arabic writings , well was known during this period.

• Printing shops became numerous and the number of printed books increased immeasurably thereafter.
• It is also the start of the rise of learned societies and academics in various ways.
• The rebirth and development of science began with the publication of books that are now considered as the main monuments of modern science.
• The "scientific revolution" heralded the beginning of the modern age. Others have seen it merely as an acceleration of a continuous process stretching from the ancient world to the present day.
• Regardless, there is general agreement that the Renaissance saw significant changes in the way the universe was viewed and the methods with which philosophers sought to explain natural phenomena.
• Perhaps the most significant development of the era was not a specific discovery, but rather a process for discovery, the scientific method.
• The discovery of the scientific method that is revolutionary new way of learning about the world focused on empirical evidence.
• the importance of mathematics and discarding the Aristotelian "final cause" in favor of a mechanical philosophy. Early and influential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus and Galileo. In his 1991 survey of these developments, Charles Van Doren considers that the Copernican revolution really is the Galilean Cartesian (Rene Descartes) revolution, on account of the nature of the courage and depth of change their work brought about.
• The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy. With the publication of Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica a new confidence was placed in the role of dissection observation, and a mechanistic view of anatomy.

Progress in biology during the 20^th Century

1900 – 1910

Power of experimentation was demonstrated

1928

Anti –bacterial agent was discovered (penicillin)

Gregor Mendel – Mendel’s Law of Heredity

X – Ray crystallography

Method of determining the arrangement of an atom within the crystal.

Other discoveries

• structure and functions of DNA(Deoxyribonucleic acid ,is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms with the exception of some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprint, like a recipe or a code, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells such as proteins and RNA molecules).

the structure or part of DNA, double helix

• Structure and functions of proteins. (insulin, hemoglobin, antibodies)
• discovery of essential nutrients.

Macro nutrients

Carbohydrates

Proteins

Fats (fat soluble vitamin and water soluble in vitamin)

Micro nutrients

Vitamins

Minerals

Water

Progress in chemistry

Chemistry – is the science of the nature of the matter and its transformation. It is also the science of matter that deals with the composition structure and prosperities of substances and the transformations that they undergo.

Branches

Organic chemistry – scientific study of the structures, properties, compositions, reactions and preparations of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons and their derivatives.

Inorganic chemistry – concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds.

Biochemistry – study of chemical processes in living organisms.

Electrochemistry – study of chemical reactions which takes place in a conductor with involves electron transfer.

Geochemistry – study of chemical changes on the Earth.

Analytical chemistry – is the study of preparation, identification and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials.

• Qualitative
• Quantitative

Discoveries

Fire – a mystical force that could transform one substance into another while producing heat and fire. A chemical reaction which is first use in chemical manner.

Metallurgy – methods of purification of metals.

Gold – known in early Egypt as early as 2600 B.C. it becomes a precious metal.

Alloy – heralded the Bronze Age. Become a better armor and weapons.

Alchemy - change base metals into gold, investigating the preparation of the "elixir of longevity", and achieving ultimate wisdom, involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of several substances described as possessing unusual properties.

Atomism

Atom is the most indivisible part of matter.

Periodic table

- is a tabular display of the chemical elements. Its invention is generally credited to Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. The periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry providing a useful framework to classify, systematize, and compare all of the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has found many applications in chemistry,physics, biology and engineering, especially chemical engineering. The current standard table contains 118 elements to date. (elements 1 - 118)

Scientific Method

refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.

Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr – atomic structure

Marie and Pierre Curie – radioactivity

James Watson and Francis Crick – DNA model

Rosalind Franklin – x ray diffraction

George de Hevesy – first to use radioactive atoms

Chemical Industry

1. extracting metals from ores
2. making pottery and glazes
3. fermenting beer and wine
4. making pigments for cosmetics and painting
5. extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume
6. making cheese
7. dying cloth
8. tanning leather
9. rendering fat into soap
10. making glass

Universal Advancement in Science in the 20^th Century

20^th century technology developed rapidly. The communication and transportation technology, broad teaching, implementation of scientific method and increased research are spending all contributions to the advancement of modern science and technology.

Pierre Duhem

• Hydrodynamics – the study of liquid in motion specifically it looks at the ways different effect the movements of liquids
• Thermodynamics – physics with the relationship and conversion between heat and other forms of energy.

Rudolf Carnap

• Logic
• Analysis
• Theory of probability - is the branch of mathematics concerned with analysis of random phenomena.Methods of probability theory also apply to descriptions of complex systems given only partial knowledge of their state, as in statistical mechanics. A great discovery of twentieth century physics was the probabilistic nature of physical phenomena at atomic scales, described in quantum mechanics.

Karl Popper

• Falsifiability – is the logical possibility than an assertion could be show false for the particular observation or physical experiment.
• Scientific method

Thomas Kuhn

• Paradigm shifts – “revolutionary science” is the term used by influential book “the structure of Scientific Revolution” to describe a change in basic assumption within the ruling theory of science.

Werner Heisenburg

• Quantum mechanics – a set of scientific principles describing the known behavior of energy and matter that predominate at the atomic and subatomic scales.

1900

Zeppeline – Thomas Suillvan

Neon light – George Cloude

E = mc² – Albert Einstein

Radio

1910

Crossword – Wyne

Gas mask – Morgan

1920

Robot – artificial life

Penicillin – Alexander Fleming

1930

Stop – action photograph – Edgerton

1940

Jeep – Karl Pabst

Microwave – Spencer

1950

Video type recorder – Charles Ginsburge

Television – John Logie Baired

1960

Audio cassette

Space war – 1^st computer video game

1970

Floppy disk – shugart

Microprocessor – Federico Faggin

1980

Mobile phones – Dr. Martin Looper

Computer – Charles Babbage

Windows – programmed invented by Microsoft

Disposable camera – Fugi

1990

wide web

Java – computer language

Progress in Astronomy

The 20^th century has been a remarkable period for astronomers with no signs that they have stopped making fascinating new discoveries or that they have yet solved the entire universe many puzzles.

Astronomers

• Henry Norris Russell – showed that all stars are going through a life cycle of birth, maturity and old age.
• Harlow Shapley – used variable stars as a yardstick to give the first good estimate of the enormous size of our own galaxy (the milky way).
• Edwin Powell Hubble – showed some nebulas, fain and cloudy spots visible through telescopes are actually extremely distant “island universe”.
• Abbe Georges Lemaitre – has theorized that the Big Bang theory is the origin of the universe.
• Hans Bethe – proposed the existence of a series of nuclear reactions that takes place in the sun and in many other stars.

Radio Astronomy – new field of science opened up by Karl Iansky and Grote Reber.

Radio signals – received from distant stars and galaxies and from mysterious objects called QUASARS.

Radio waves – a type of electromagnetic radiation with wave lengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light.

Spectroscope – first revealed the nature of gases existing in the sun.

Spectroheliograph – able to photograph the entire visible surface of the sun together with modern prominences at one time. Photography with a modern rapid plates gives us with a given telescope pictures of objects so faint that no visual telescopes of the same size will reveal them.

Albert Einstein – announced his theory that mass and energy are equivalent and the idea of nuclear power was introduced. It is known that the sun produces energy by nuclear fusion.

Science in the 19^th Century

• Appears to be a golden age
• Science expanded successfully into new fields of inquiry, including combinations of mathematics and experiments in physics, the application of theory to experiment in chemistry and controlled experimentations in biology. This was greatly aided by the establishment of the new and reformed universities in which research was fostered, as well as teaching, and the communication through specialist journal and society.

Science and Technology in the mid – 19^th Century

• The last half of the 19^th century was a period which experienced rapid progress in science and technology. There were important breakthroughs: iron and steel technology, electricity, weapons, physics, sociology, psychology and biology.
• Dalton – he is an English school master. And according to him Atoms were the smallest indestructible parts of matter.
• Mendeleyev – Table of Elements
• Radium – discovered by Marie and Pierre Curie on the 26^th of December. T is easily separated and the existence of the second element are demonstrated by its radioactive property
• Psychology – Sigmund Freud look for explanations for individual human behavior beyond the natural level.
• Biology – Charles Darwin in his Theory of Evolution (is the change in the inherited traits of a population of organisms through successive generations).

Differences in Style of Research

There were still striking differences among leading nations regarding the circumstances and styles of research. In Britain, there was a marked absence of institution providing jobs for researchers. In Germany, the natural sciences shared in the rise in size and prestige of the university system.

Progress in Physics

• Henry Hans Oersted (1819) – electric current produces a magnetic field.
• Michael Faraday (1831) – reverse effect
• Joseph Henry – built the first powerful electromagnets and invented the electric motors.
• James Prescott Joule – first law of thermodynamics
• Wilhelm Roentgen – x ray
• Marie Curie – gave the name “radioactivity”. She and her husband Pierre Curie went on to discover Polonium and Radium.

Progress in Chemistry

• Fredrich Wohler – prepared urea in a test tube from inorganic starting materials.
• Baron Justus Von Liebig – chemical fertilizers
• Gustav Robert Kirchhoff and Robert Wilhelm Bunson – spectrograph
• Dmitri Mendeleyev (1869) – periodic table

Progress in Astronomy

• Sir William Herschel (1781) – Uranus did not precisely move in its expected orbit.
• Urbair J.J. Leverrier – Neptune

Progress in Biology

• Karl Ernst Von Baer – embryology
• Charles Darwin (1859) – origin of the species(considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology and introduced the scientific theory that populations evolved over the course of generations through a process of natural selection).
• Gregor Mendel (1866) – the pattern of inheritance of characteristics from one generation of sweet peas to another.

Progress in Medicine

• William Morton, Charles Jackson, Crowfor Lon, Sir James Simpson – anesthetic
• Louis Pasteur – methods of immunizing people.
• Joseph Lister – antiseptic
• Walter Reed – yellow fever is caused by a virus by a mosquito

Science during Renaissance Period

Renaissance

is French for "rebirth"; Italian: Rinascimento, from ri- "again" and nascere "be born" was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe.

The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term.

Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths( a person whose expertise spans a significant number of different subject areas.) as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo who inspired the term "Renaissance man".

Establishment of Academies

The Academia Del Cimiento in Florence (1657 – 1667)

The Royal Society in London (1662)

The Academie Des Sciences in Paris (1666)

Books and Journals

Journal Des Savants of Paris (1665)

Acta Eruditorum of Leipzig (1682)

Great Treatises

Principia Mathematica of Sir Isaac Newton (1687)

Traite De la Lumiere of Christian Huygens (1690)

Remarkable Scientist during Renaissance

• Johann Gutenberg (1450) – The invention of printing press.
• German Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (1401 – 64) – The Latin Exponent of the value of experiment, whose recorded careful experiment on a growing plant, providing that it absorbs something from the air, is the first formal biological experiment and the first experimental proof that air has weight.
• Nicholas Copernicus (1453 – 1543) – Developed Heliocentric theory using Scientific method.
• Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 – 1519) – He considered as the greatest artist of his time and was it’s the greatest scientific exponent.
• Andres Vesalius (1514 – 1564) – He wrote one of the first accurate books on human anatomy, De Humani Corporis Fabrica. Founder of modern Human anatomy.

The New Status of the Greek Science

• The Renaissance saw the revival of platonic thoughts.
• 1550 an accumulation of biological works of Aristotle tended to confirm him as “THE MASTER THAT WHO KNOW” in that particular field.
• Simon Stevinus – introduced the decimal fraction.
• Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) – an astronomer who made telescope.
• Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630) – theorized about the movement of the planets.
• Rene Descartes the inventor of the graph who believed in God’s Existence.
• Paracelsus – Alchemist and Physician of the renaissance. Added a third elements “salt” to make a trinity of alchemical elements.
• Francis Bacon – improvised the scientific method which was based on trial and error.
• Sir Isaac Newton – discovered the gravity.

Nature of European Science

• Owes its past success and its special character to its sharing, in its metaphysics and method.
• The basic features of European society where aggressive cooperation for a common good.

Science during the Industrial Revolution

• An industrial revolution began that transformed Europe from agrarian to urban society towards the end of the 18^th century.